Class 12th Biology: Chapter 10 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 

Chapter 10

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Syllabus: Application of biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production, stem cell technology, gene therapy; genetically modified organisms - Bt crops; transgenic animals; bio safety issues, bio piracy and patents.

 

Introduction:

1.     Biotechnology, as you would have learnt from the previous chapter, essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and biologicals using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants and animals.

2.     The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.

3.     Three critical research areas of biotechnology are:

(i)                Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or pure enzyme.

(ii)              Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act, and

(iii)            Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.

 

4.     Let us now learn how human beings have used biotechnology to improve the quality of human life, especially in the field of food production and health.

 

10.1 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

1.     Let us take a look at the three options that can be thought for increasing food production

(i)                agro-chemical based agriculture;

(ii)              organic agriculture

(iii)            genetically engineered crop-based agriculture.

 

2.     The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply (by High-Yielding Varieties of Crops, Increased Use of Chemical Fertilizers , Improved Irrigation Methods etc.  ) but yet it was not enough to feed the growing human population.

3.     Increased yields have partly been due to the use of improved crop varieties, but mainly due to the use of better management practices and use of agrochemicals (fertilisers and pesticides).

4.     However, for farmers in the developing world, agrochemicals are often too expensive, and further increases in yield with existing varieties are not possible using conventional breeding.

5.     As traditional breeding techniques failed to keep pace with demand and to provide sufficiently fast and efficient systems for crop improvement, another technology called tissue culture got developed. What does tissue culture mean?

 

A.    Tissue Culture/Micro propagation

It was learnt by scientists, during 1950s, that whole plants could be regenerated from explants, i.e., any part of a plant taken out and grown in a test tube, under sterile conditions in special nutrient media. This process is called tissue culture.

(i)    This capacity to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called totipotency.

(ii)  It is important to stress here that the nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose and also inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.

(iii)                        By application of these methods it is possible to achieve propagation of a large number of plants in very short durations.

(iv)                        This method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture is called micro-propagation.

(v)  Each of these plants will be genetically identical to the original plant from which they were grown, i.e., they are somaclones (clones made by somatic cells).

(vi)                        Many important food plants like tomato, banana, apple, etc., have been produced on commercial scale using this method.

(vii)                      Another important application of the method is the recovery of healthy plants from diseased plants.

(viii)                    Even if the plant is infected with a virus, the meristem (apical and axillary) is free of virus.

(ix)Hence, one can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus-free plants.

 

6.     Scientists have succeeded in culturing meristems of banana, sugarcane, potato, etc.

 

B.     Somatic hybridisation

(i)    Scientists have even isolated single cells from plants and after digesting their cell walls have been able to isolate naked protoplasts (surrounded by plasma membrane only).

(ii)  Isolated protoplasts from two different varieties of plants – each having a desirable character – can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts, which can be further grown to form a new plant.

Protoplast Fusion: The isolated protoplasts from the two different plant varieties are brought together and induced to fuse using various techniques. Electric pulses, chemical agents, or specialized enzymes can be used to promote the fusion of the protoplasts.

(iii)                        These hybrids are called somatic hybrids while the process is called somatic hybridisation.

(iv)                        Imagine a situation when a protoplast of tomato is fused with that of potato, and then they are grown – to form new hybrid plants combining tomato and potato characteristics.

(v)  Well, this has been achieved – resulting in formation of pomato; unfortunately this plant did not have all the desired combination of characteristics for its commercial utilisation.

 

7.     Is there any alternative path that our understanding of genetics can show so that farmers may obtain maximum yield from their fields?

8.     Is there a way to minimise the use of fertilisers and chemicals so that their harmful effects on the environment are reduced?

9.     Use of genetically modified crops is a possible solution.

 

C.     Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

i).     Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).

ii).   GM plants have been useful in many ways.

 

iii).                        Advantages of Genetic modification has:

a)     made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).

b)     reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).

c)     helped to reduce post harvest losses.

Genetically modified crops can be developed to have enhanced shelf life characteristics. This could involve altering genes related to ripening, reducing ethylene production (the hormone responsible for ripening), or enhancing the ability of fruits and vegetables to withstand physical stress during transportation and handling, thereby reducing spoilage.

 

d)     increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil). This reduces the need for frequent applications of chemical fertilizers, which can be costly and environmentally damaging.

e)     enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., golden rice, i.e., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.

f)       In addition to these uses, GM has been used to create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches, fuels and pharmaceuticals.

"tailor-made plants" refer to crops that have been genetically engineered or modified to produce specific compounds or substances that are not typically found in their natural counterparts.

 

D.    Production of pest resistant plants

1.     Some of the applications of biotechnology in agriculture that you will study in detail are the production of pest resistant plants, which could decrease the amount of pesticide used.

2.     Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt for short).

i).     Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides; in effect created a bio-pesticide.

Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato and soyabean etc. Bt Cotton:

ii).   Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), coleopterans (beetles) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).

iii). B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals during a particular phase of their growth.

iv). These crystals contain a toxic insecticidal protein.

 

Why does this toxin not kill the Bacillus?

i).     Actually, the Bt toxin protein exist as inactive protoxins but once an insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.

ii).   The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and create pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and eventually cause death of the insect.

 

3.     Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and incorporated into the several crop plants (using the vector agrobacterium) such as cotton (Figure 10.1).

4.     The choice of genes depends upon the crop and the targeted pest, as most Bt toxins are insect-group specific.

5.     The toxin is coded by a gene cryIAc named cry.

i).     The gene cryIAc belongs to a family of genes known as cry genes, which are derived from the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). ii).   These genes encode a class of proteins called crystal (Cry) proteins or delta-endotoxins, which are toxic to certain insects and pests. iii). The "Ac" in cryIAc refers to the strain or subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from which the specific cry gene was derived.

 

6.     There are a number of them, for example, the proteins encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms, that of cryIAb controls corn borer.

 

E.     Pest Resistant Plants:

i).     Pests can include insects, rodents, birds, weeds, fungi, and other organisms that cause damage, transmit diseases, compete with humans for resources, or disrupt ecosystems. ii).   While all pests can belong to the category of insects, not all insects are pests.

 

1.     Several nematodes parasitise a wide variety of plants and animals including human beings.

2.     A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield.

i).     A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which was based on the process of RNA interference (RNAi).

Mechanism of this method:

Steps involved: i).     In the first step, a nematode specific enzyme gene similar to that of original nematode gene introduces in the tobacco plant. ii).   The introduction of DNA was such that it produced both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells. Antisense RNA: This RNA strand is complementary to the sense RNA and thus runs in the opposite direction, which is 3' to 5'.   iii). These two RNAs, being complementary to each other, form a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the plant. iv). When a nematode feeds on the plant, it takes in this dsRNA or the small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) made from it. v). The siRNAs bind to a protein complex called RISC (RNA-Induced Silencing Complex), which uses the siRNA to recognize the nematode’s matching mRNA. vi). The RISC complex cuts and destroys the nematode mRNA with the help of enzymes, stopping protein production in the nematode. vii).          As a result, the nematode is weakened or dies, and the plant remains protected from infection.

 

When the statement mentions "protected through novel mechanism," it implies that the transgenic plants are exhibiting resistance to nematode infection without use of harmful chemicals.

 

viii).        RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense.

ix). This method involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary dsRNA molecule that binds to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).

x).   The source of this complementary dsRNA could be from an infection by viruses having RNA genomes or mobile genetic elements (transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.

These are transposons (jumping genes) that don’t move directly as DNA. Instead, they first copy themselves into RNA, then convert that RNA back into DNA, and insert this DNA copy somewhere else in the genome.

 

xi). Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes were introduced into the host plant (Figure 10.2).

xii).           The introduction of DNA was such that it produced both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells.

xiii).         These two RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and thus, silenced the specific mRNA of the nematode.

xiv).         The consequence was that the parasite could not survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.

xv).           The transgenic plant therefore got itself protected from the parasite (Figure 10.2).

 

10.2 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

1.     The recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense impact in the area of healthcare by enabling mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs (medicines).

2.     Further, the recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted immunological responses as is common in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources. The medicines formed from non human resources could cause allergic reactions in the human body.

3.     At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use the world over.

4.     In India, 12 of these are presently being marketed.

10.2.1 Genetically Engineered Insulin

1.     Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular time intervals.

2.     What would a diabetic patient do if enough human insulin was not available?

3.     If you discuss this, you would soon realise that one would have to isolate and use insulin from other animals.

4.     Would the insulin isolated from other animals be just as effective as that secreted by the human body itself and would it not elicit an immune response in the human body?

5.     Now, imagine if bacterium were available that could make human insulin.

6.     Suddenly the whole process becomes so simple. You can easily grow a large quantity of the bacteria and make as much insulin as you need.

7.     Think about whether insulin can be orally administered to diabetic people or not. Why?

i).     Digestive Enzymes: Insulin is a protein-based hormone that, if taken orally, would encounter the harsh acidic environment of the stomach and be subject to degradation by digestive enzymes. The enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract break down proteins, including insulin, rendering it ineffective before it can reach the bloodstream. ii).   Large Molecule and Poor Absorption: Insulin is a large molecule that cannot easily pass through the intestinal lining into the bloodstream.

 

8.     Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs.

9.     Insulin from an animal source, though caused some patients to develop allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign protein.

 

A.    Insulin and its structure:

i).     It is secreted by Pancreas.

ii).   Pancreas has a specific tissue known as islets of langerhans.

iii). It has three types of cells, Alpha, Gamma and Beta cells.

Cell Type                                 Hormone Secreted                                    Function   Alpha cells                                   Glucagon                                          Raises blood sugar   Beta cells                                      Insulin                                              Lowers blood sugar   Delta cells                                     Somatostatin                                    Inhibits both insulin and glucagon

Gamma/PP cells → secrete pancreatic polypeptide

iv). Here Beta cells will help in producing insulin.           

v).   Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains: chain A and chain B, that are linked together by disulphide bridges (Figure 10.3).

vi). Chain A is short consists of 21 amino acids and Chain B is long consists of 30 amino acids. In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a pro-enzyme, the pro-hormone also needs to be processed before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone) which contains an extra stretch called the C peptide.

 

vii).           This C peptide is not present in the mature insulin and is removed during maturation into insulin.

viii).        The main challenge for production of insulin using rDNA (recombinant DNA) techniques was getting insulin assembled into a mature form.

ix). In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B, chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.

x).   Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin.

 

10.2.2 Gene Therapy

1.     If a person is born with a hereditary disease, can a corrective therapy be taken for such a disease?

2.     Gene therapy is an attempt to do this.

3.     Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child/embryo.

 

A.    Mechanism of gene therapy

1.     Here genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a disease.

2.     Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to take over the function of and compensate for the non-functional gene.

3.     The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This is also known as severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

4.     This enzyme is crucial for the immune system to function. In the absence of this enzyme, T cells (lymphocyte cells, which provide immunity) will not proliferate.

5.     The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase.

6.     In some children ADA deficiency can be cured by bone marrow transplantation; in others it can be treated by enzyme replacement therapy, in which functional ADA is given to the patient by injection.

7.     But the problem with both of these approaches that they are not completely curative.

 

B.     Gene therapy approach to rectify this disorder

i).     As a first step towards gene therapy, lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside the body.

Even in ADA-deficient patients, some lymphocytes are present, but their number and function are severely reduced. ADA deficiency doesn't stop all lymphocyte formation — it mainly causes their gradual death due to accumulation of toxic metabolites. The ADA enzyme is not directly responsible for the formation of T cells — that process is governed by genetic instructions in the thymus and bone marrow. However, ADA is essential for their survival. Here's how: ·         Function of ADA: It breaks down toxic byproducts (like deoxyadenosine) in cells. ·         Without ADA: These toxic substances build up and are especially harmful to T lymphocytes, leading to their damage or death.

 

ii).   A functional ADA cDNA (complementary DNA using a retroviral vector) is then introduced into these lymphocytes, which are subsequently returned to the patient.

🔧 So what is the role of cDNA here? 1.     A working ADA gene is needed to fix the problem. 2.     Scientists make a complementary DNA (cDNA) copy of the normal, working ADA gene. 3.     It is usually synthesized in the lab using mRNA extracted from healthy cells that normally express the ADA gene. 4.     These healthy cells could be any normal body cells (like liver, kidney, or even blood cells) where the ADA gene is active — not necessarily bone marrow cells. 5.     Using reverse transcriptase, scientists convert this mRNA into complementary DNA (cDNA). 6.     This cDNA is inserted into a retroviral vector (a harmless virus used to deliver genes into cells). 7.     The virus carries the ADA cDNA into the patient’s lymphocytes. 8.     Once inside, the cDNA helps the cells (lymphocytes) make the ADA enzyme, which the patient’s body couldn’t produce before. 9.     These corrected lymphocytes are then put back into the patient, where they help improve immunity.

 

iii). However, as these cells are not immortal, the patient requires periodic infusion of such genetically engineered lymphocytes.

iv). However, if the gene isolate from marrow cells producing ADA is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be a permanent cure.

 

10.2.3 Molecular Diagnosis

1.     You know that for effective treatment of a disease, early diagnosis and understanding its pathophysiology is very important.

Pathophysiology is the study of how normal biological processes are altered by disease. In simpler terms, it looks at how diseases affect the body's functions and processes.

 

2.     Using conventional methods of diagnosis (serum and urine analysis, etc.) early detection is not possible.

3.     Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.

 

A.    Early diagnosis using PCR technique

i).     Presence of a pathogen (bacteria, viruses, etc.) is normally suspected only when the pathogen has produced a disease symptom.

ii).   By this time the concentration of pathogen is already very high in the body.

iii). However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the symptoms of the disease are not yet visible) can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR.

iv). Can you explain how PCR can detect very low amounts of DNA?

🧪 How PCR helps in detection: 1. Targeting the pathogen’s DNA: ·         If a person is infected, the pathogen (like a bacteria or virus) leaves behind a small amount of its DNA or RNA in the body — maybe only a few molecules. ·         PCR can be designed to target only that specific DNA of the pathogen. 2. Amplification: ·         PCR uses cycles of heating and cooling to make copies of that DNA. ·         Each cycle doubles the DNA — like: o    1 → 2 → 4 → 8 → 16 → 32 → ... After 30–40 cycles, it becomes millions to billions of copies. 3. Detection: ·         Once the DNA is amplified enough, it becomes easily detectable using dyes or special machines. ·         This means even a tiny initial presence of the pathogen (before symptoms start) can now be seen clearly.

 

v).   PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients.

vi). It is being used to detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients too.

vii).                       It is a powerful techqnique to identify many other genetic disorders.

 

B.     Autoradiography

i).     In this method, a cancer gene sequence (normal cancer gene sequence which are not mutated or we can say which will not cause cancer) which may be ssDNA or RNA is formed in lab and tagged with a radioactive molecule. We will call this gene a probe.

ii).   A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells (the clone of cells of a person in which we need to diagnose) followed by detection using autoradiography.

iii). The clone having the mutated gene (gene which can cause cancer) will hence not appear on the photographic film, because the probe will not have complementarity with the mutated gene.

iv). The clone of cell having complementarity gene (normal gene) of probe will bind with the probe (radioactive DNA) and hence will appear on the photographic film.   

v).   This indicates the gene is normal, and the person is unlikely to be at risk. However, if there is no binding and no appearance on the film, it suggests a mutation, and the person may be prone to cancer in the future."     

 

C.     ELISA (ENZYME LINKED IMMUNO SORBENT ASSAY)

i).     It is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.

ii).   Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against the pathogen.

Antigen: An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as foreign or harmful. This could be a part of a virus, bacterium, or any other pathogen, as well as substances like pollen or toxins. When an antigen enters the body, it triggers an immune response. Antibody: An antibody is a protein produced by the immune system in response to an antigen. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins. They specifically bind to antigens to help neutralize or destroy them. Each antibody is specific to a particular antigen, fitting together like a lock and key. Once bound, antibodies can neutralize the antigen directly or mark it for destruction by other immune cells.

 

iii). For ex:- If a person has HIV antigen then by taking his blood sample in the lab we will interact this antigen with the corresponding antibody, if its binds, the test is positive and vice versa.

 

10.3 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

1.     Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals.

2.     Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced, although over 95 per cent of all existing transgenic animals are mice.

3.     Why are these animals being produced?

4.     How can man benefit from such modifications?

 

A.    Reason behind producing transgenic animals

a)     Normal physiology and development:

i).     Transgenic animals can be specifically designed to allow the study of how genes are regulated, and how they affect the normal functions of the body and its development, e.g., study of complex factors involved in growth such as insulin-like growth factor.

ii).   By introducing genes from other species that alter the formation of this factor and studying the biological effects that result, information is obtained about the biological role of the factor in the body.

✅ Example: Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) Let’s say scientists want to study Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF-1), which helps in growth and development. ·         They can insert a human IGF-1 gene into a mouse (which makes it a transgenic mouse). ·         Now the mouse produces more IGF-1 than usual. ·         Scientists observe: Does the mouse grow faster? Does it develop larger organs or muscles? This helps them understand how IGF-1 affects growth.

 

 

b)    Study of disease:

i).     Many transgenic animals are designed to increase our understanding of how genes contribute to the development of disease.

ii).   These are specially made to serve as models for human diseases so that investigation of new treatments for diseases is made possible.

iii). Today transgenic models exist for many human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer’s.

Cystic Fibrosis: Definition: Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects the respiratory and digestive systems, leading to the production of thick, sticky mucus. Rheumatoid Arthritis: Definition: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system mistakenly attacks the joints, causing inflammation. Alzheimer’s Disease: Definition: Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior.

 

 

c)     Biological products:

i).     Medicines required to treat certain human diseases can contain biological products, but such products are often expensive to make.

ii).   Transgenic animals that produce useful biological products can be created by the introduction of the portion of DNA (or genes) which codes for a particular product such as human protein (α-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema. This protein is obtained by transgenic sheep.

Ø Emphysema is a chronic and progressive lung disease that primarily affects the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. Ø It's often grouped under the broader term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and asthma. Ø  Emphysema specifically involves damage to the alveoli, resulting in their gradual destruction, which in turn affects the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs.

 

iii). Similar attempts are being made for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis.

iv). In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre).

v).   The milk contained the human alpha-lactalbumin and was nutritionally a more balanced product for human babies than natural cow-milk.

 

d)    Vaccine safety:

i).     Transgenic mice are being developed for use in testing the safety of vaccines before they are used on humans.

ii).   Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.

iii). If successful and found to be reliable, they could replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of batches of the vaccine.

 

e)     Chemical safety testing:

i).     This is known as toxicity/safety testing.

ii).   The procedure is the same as that used for testing toxicity of drugs.

iii). Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them more sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals.

iv). They are then exposed to the toxic substances and the effects studied.

v).   Toxicity testing in such animals will allow us to obtain results in less time.

 

10.4 ETHICAL ISSUES

1.     The manipulation of living organisms by the human race cannot go on any further, without regulation.

2.     Some ethical standards are required to evaluate the morality of all human activities that might help or harm living organisms.

3.     Going beyond the morality of such issues, the biological significance of such things is also important.

4.     Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredicatable results when such organisms are introduced into the ecosystem.

5.     Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which will make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM-organisms for public services.

6.     The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (as food and medicine sources, for example) has also created problems with patents granted for the same.

7.     There is growing public anger that certain companies are being granted patents for products and technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants and other biological resources that have long been identified, developed and used by farmers and indigenous people of a specific region/country.

Patent as Intellectual Property: A patent is a form of intellectual property right granted by the government to an inventor or assignee. It provides the inventor with exclusive rights to their invention for a limited period, typically 20 years from the filing date of the patent application. This exclusive right allows the inventor to prevent others from making, using, selling, or importing the invention without permission. Inventions eligible for patents could be products, processes, methods, machines, or improvements on existing technologies.

 

 

A.    Rice

i).     Rice is an important food grain, the presence of which goes back thousands of years in Asia’s agricultural history.

ii).   There are an estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India alone.

iii). The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest in the world.

iv). Basmati rice is distinct for its unique aroma and flavour and 27 documented varieties of Basmati are grown in India.

v).   There is reference to Basmati in ancient texts, folklore and poetry, as it has been grown for centuries.

vi). In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark Office.

vii).                       This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati, in the US and abroad.

viii).                    This ‘new’ variety of Basmati had actually been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties.

ix). Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as an invention or a novelty.

x).   The patent extends to functional equivalents, implying that other people selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent.

 

B.     Several attempts have also been made to patent uses, products and processes based on Indian traditional herbal medicines, e.g., turmeric neem.

 

8.     If we are not vigilant and we do not immediately counter these patent applications, other countries/individuals may encash on our rich legacy and we may not be able to do anything about it.

9.     Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organisations without proper authorisation from the countries and people concerned without compensatory payment.

One well-known example of biopiracy is the case of Neem (Azadirachta indica): ·         What happened: A U.S. company patented the use of neem extract for its antifungal properties. ·         The issue: Neem has been traditionally used in India for centuries for its medicinal and agricultural benefits. ·         Why it was biopiracy: The company took knowledge that belonged to Indian communities, patented it without permission, and did not share any benefits with the local people or government. ·         What happened later: The patent was challenged by Indian activists and organizations, and the European Patent Office revoked the patent in 2000.

 

10.Most of the industrialised nations are rich financially but poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge.

11.In contrast the developing and the underdeveloped world is rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to bio-resources.

12.Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern applications and can also be used to save time, effort and expenditure during their commercialisation.

13.There has been growing realisation of the injustice, inadequate compensation and benefit sharing between developed and developing countries.

14.Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorised exploitation of their bio-resources and traditional knowledge.

15.The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill, that takes such issues into consideration, including patent terms emergency provisions and research and development initiative.

 

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